Cushing's syndrome in women: age-related differences in etiology and clinical picture.
Pituitary
OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the clinical presentation, biochemical profile, and etiology of Cushing's syndrome (CS) in women stratified by age. METHODS:Retrospective study of patients with CS, treated at Rabin Medical Center from 2000 to 2020, or Maccabi Healthcare Services in Israel from 2005 to 2017. Disease etiology, presentation and biochemical profile were compared according to age at diagnosis: ≤ 45, 46-64, or ≥ 65 years. Study was approved by the Ethics Review Boards of both facilities with waiver of consent. RESULTS:The cohort included 142 women (mean age, 46.0 ± 15.1 years):81 (57.0%) with Cushing's disease (CD), and 61 (43.0%) with adrenal CS. Pituitary etiology was more common among women < 45 (70.6%), compared with patients ≥ 65 years (31.6%) (P < 0.05). Among CS patients, hypercortisolism was diagnosed in the context of screening after an adrenal incidentaloma detection in 15.0% of patients < 45 and 53.8% of ≥ 65 years (P < 0.001). Weight gain was evident in 57.4% of women < 45 (56.3% CD, 60.0% CS), and 15.8% of women ≥ 65 years (50% CD, 0% CS) (P = 0.011). Mean UFC levels were highest for women < 45 (3.8 × ULN) and lowest for ≥ 65 years (2.3 × ULN) (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION:We have shown for the first time that women with CS ≥ 65 years of age more commonly have adrenal etiology. The initial presentation of CS also differs between age groups, where women < 45 years are likely to present with weight gain, while those ≥ 65 years are frequently diagnosed incidentally, when screening for hypercortisolism in the presence of an adrenal incidentaloma.
10.1007/s11102-022-01292-2
Psychological complications of Cushing's syndrome.
Santos Alicia,Webb Susan M,Resmini Eugenia
Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity
PURPOSE OF REVIEW:The aim of this article is to review and discuss recent evidence of psychological complications in Cushing's syndrome. RECENT FINDINGS:Recent research has described the presence of depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, mania, bipolar disorder and psychotic symptoms in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Furthermore, the perspective of patients' partners has also been emphasized. SUMMARY:Recent literature highlights the importance of screening for psychological alterations in Cushing's syndrome, as these alterations can be present in many patients, having a high impact in daily life. Depression is a very common symptom, although in rare cases, patients can also present mania or psychosis. Some studies highlight the importance of screening for organic disease (including Cushing's syndrome) in patients with unexpected or first onset psychiatric symptoms. Finally, the perspective of the patients' partners makes it clear that the partners can also suffer due to the disease of the patient. Intervention programmes involving patient's partners could be helpful to improve both patient and partner wellbeing.
10.1097/MED.0000000000000633
Diagnostic workup of Cushing's syndrome.
Journal of neuroendocrinology
Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a rare but detrimental endocrine disorder. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are essential since the duration of hypercortisolism has an adverse impact on the extent of comorbidities and overall survival. The diagnostic approach involves a stepwise process that includes (1) screening and confirming the diagnosis and (2) establishing the aetiology of CS. The tests currently used to confirm the diagnosis of CS include urinary free cortisol measurements, the dexamethasone suppression test and late- night salivary cortisol or midnight serum cortisol measurements. None of these tests are ideal; all have pitfalls and require careful interpretation. Following confirmation of CS, measurement of ACTH discriminates between ACTH-dependent and non-ACTH dependent causes of CS. Adrenal imaging provides clues for the aetiology of non-ACTH dependent forms. Differentiation between the ACTH-dependent forms that involve pituitary corticotroph adenomas and ectopic ACTH sources is more complex and include pituitary MRI imaging, the high dose dexamethasone suppression test, the CRH test, bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling and, when required imaging modalities to detect ectopic ACTH secreting lesions. This review, which is part of a special issue on "Update of Cushing's syndrome: 100 years after Minnie G" will provide an update on our current diagnostic workup for the confirmation and differential diagnosis of CS.
10.1111/jne.13111
Cushing's Syndrome Effects on the Thyroid.
Paragliola Rosa Maria,Corsello Andrea,Papi Giampaolo,Pontecorvi Alfredo,Corsello Salvatore Maria
International journal of molecular sciences
The most known effects of endogenous Cushing's syndrome are the phenotypic changes and metabolic consequences. However, hypercortisolism can exert important effects on other endocrine axes. The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis activity can be impaired by the inappropriate cortisol secretion, which determinates the clinical and biochemical features of the "central hypothyroidism". These findings have been confirmed by several clinical studies, which also showed that the cure of hypercortisolism can determine the recovery of normal hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis activity. During active Cushing's syndrome, the "immunological tolerance" guaranteed by the hypercortisolism can mask, in predisposed patients, the development of autoimmune thyroid diseases, which increases in prevalence after the resolution of hypercortisolism. However, the immunological mechanism is not the only factor that contributes to this phenomenon, which probably includes also deiodinase-impaired activity. Cushing's syndrome can also have an indirect impact on thyroid function, considering that some drugs used for the medical control of hypercortisolism are associated with alterations in the thyroid function test. These considerations suggest the utility to check the thyroid function in Cushing's syndrome patients, both during the active disease and after its remission.
10.3390/ijms22063131
The diagnosis and management of Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy.
Journal of neuroendocrinology
Endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) is rarely encountered during pregnancy. Clinical and biochemical changes in healthy pregnancy overlap with those seen in pregnancy complicated by CS; the diagnosis is therefore challenging and can be delayed. During normal gestation, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, cortisol, and urinary free cortisol levels rise. Dexamethasone administration fails to fully suppress cortisol in pregnant women without CS. Localisation may be hindered by non-suppressed adrenocorticotrophic hormone levels in a large proportion of those with adrenal CS; smaller corticotroph adenomas may go undetected as a result of a lack of contrast administration or the presence of pituitary hyperplasia; and inferior petrosal sinus sampling is not recommended given the risk of radiation and thrombosis. Yet, diagnosis is essential; active disease is associated with multiple insults to both maternal and foetal health, and those cured may normalise the risk of maternal-foetal complications. The published literature consists mostly of case reports or small case series affected by publication bias, heterogeneous definitions of maternal or foetal outcomes or lack of detail on severity of hypercortisolism. Consequently, conclusive recommendations, or a standardised management approach for all, cannot be made. Management is highly individualised: the decision for surgery, medical control of hypercortisolism or adoption of a conservative approach is dependent on the timing of diagnosis (respective to stage of gestation), the ability to localise the tumour, severity of CS, pre-existing maternal comorbidity, and, ultimately, patient choice. Close communication is a necessity with the patient placed at the centre of all decisions, with risks, benefits, and uncertainties around any investigation and management carefully discussed. Care should be delivered by an experienced, multidisciplinary team, with the resources and expertise available to manage such a rare and challenging condition during pregnancy.
10.1111/jne.13118
Cyclic Cushing's Syndrome - A Diagnostic Challenge.
Frontiers in endocrinology
Cyclic Cushing's syndrome (also known as intermittent or periodic) is a disease characterized by periods of transient hypercortisolemia shifting into periods of normo- and/or hypocortisolemia. Diagnosis of cyclic Cushing's syndrome is based on at least three periods of confirmed hypercortisolemia interspersed by two periods of normocortisolemia. Cyclic Cushing's syndrome is one of the greatest challenges in modern endocrinology due to its diverse clinical picture, unpredictable duration and frequency of phases, and various etiologies. We discuss a diagnostic algorithm for periodic hypercortisolemia with special regard to hair cortisol analysis and desmopressin stimulation test which both seem to be helpful in finding the correct answer.
10.3389/fendo.2021.658429
Cushing's syndrome: Overview of clinical presentation, diagnostic tools and complications.
Barbot Mattia,Zilio Marialuisa,Scaroni Carla
Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism
Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a severe condition that results from chronic exposure to elevated circulating cortisol levels; it is a rare but potentially life-threating condition, especially when not timely diagnosed and treated. Even though the diagnosis can be straightforward in florid cases due to their typical phenotype, milder forms can be missed. Despite the availability of different screening tests, the diagnosis remains challenging as none of the available tools proved to be fully accurate. Due to the ubiquitous effect of cortisol, it is easy understandable that its excess leads to a variety of systemic complications including hypertension, metabolic syndrome, bone damages and neurocognitive impairment. This article discusses clinical presentation of CS with an eye on the most frequent cortisol-related comorbidities and discuss the main pitfalls of first- and second-line tests in endogenous hypercortisolism diagnostic workup.
10.1016/j.beem.2020.101380
Epidemiology and mortality of Cushing's syndrome.
Hakami Osamah A,Ahmed Shahzada,Karavitaki Niki
Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism
Endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a rare endocrine disorder characterised by excess cortisol secretion due to either ACTH-dependent conditions [commonly an ACTH-producing pituitary adenoma (Cushing's disease)] or ACTH-independent causes (with most common aetiology being a benign adrenal adenoma). Overall, the annual incidence of CS ranges between 1.8 and 3.2 cases per million population. Mortality in active CS is elevated compared to the general population, and a number of studies support the view that survival is also compromised even after apparent successful treatment. The main cause of death is cardiovascular disease highlighting the negative impact of cortisol excess on cardiovascular risk factors. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment of the cortisol excess, as well as vigilant monitoring and stringent control of cardiovascular risk factors are key elements for the long-term prognosis of these patients.
10.1016/j.beem.2021.101521
A Probabilistic Model for Cushing's Syndrome Screening in At-Risk Populations: A Prospective Multicenter Study.
León-Justel Antonio,Madrazo-Atutxa Ainara,Alvarez-Rios Ana I,Infantes-Fontán Rocio,Garcia-Arnés Juan A,Lillo-Muñoz Juan A,Aulinas Anna,Urgell-Rull Eulàlia,Boronat Mauro,Sánchez-de-Abajo Ana,Fajardo-Montañana Carmen,Ortuño-Alonso Mario,Salinas-Vert Isabel,Granada Maria L,Cano David A,Leal-Cerro Alfonso,
The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism
CONTEXT:Cushing's syndrome (CS) is challenging to diagnose. Increased prevalence of CS in specific patient populations has been reported, but routine screening for CS remains questionable. To decrease the diagnostic delay and improve disease outcomes, simple new screening methods for CS in at-risk populations are needed. OBJECTIVE:To develop and validate a simple scoring system to predict CS based on clinical signs and an easy-to-use biochemical test. DESIGN:Observational, prospective, multicenter. SETTING:Referral hospital. PATIENTS:A cohort of 353 patients attending endocrinology units for outpatient visits. INTERVENTIONS:All patients were evaluated with late-night salivary cortisol (LNSC) and a low-dose dexamethasone suppression test for CS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:Diagnosis or exclusion of CS. RESULTS:Twenty-six cases of CS were diagnosed in the cohort. A risk scoring system was developed by logistic regression analysis, and cutoff values were derived from a receiver operating characteristic curve. This risk score included clinical signs and symptoms (muscular atrophy, osteoporosis, and dorsocervical fat pad) and LNSC levels. The estimated area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.93, with a sensitivity of 96.2% and specificity of 82.9%. CONCLUSIONS:We developed a risk score to predict CS in an at-risk population. This score may help to identify at-risk patients in non-endocrinological settings such as primary care, but external validation is warranted.
10.1210/jc.2016-1673
The Effect of Endogenous Cushing Syndrome on All-cause and Cause-specific Mortality.
The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism
OBJECTIVE:We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of all-cause and cause-specific mortality of patients with benign endogenous Cushing syndrome (CS). METHODS:The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42017067530). PubMed, EMBASE, CINHAL, Web of Science, and Cochrane Central searches were undertaken from inception to January 2021. Outcomes were the standardized mortality ratio (SMR), proportion, and cause of deaths. The I2 test, subgroup analysis, and meta-regression were used to assess heterogeneity across studies. RESULTS:SMR was reported in 14 articles including 3691 patients (13 Cushing disease [CD] and 7 adrenal CS [ACS] cohorts). Overall SMR was 3.0 (95% CI, 2.3-3.9; I2 = 80.5%) for all CS, 2.8 (95% CI, 2.1-3.7; I2 = 81.2%) for CD and 3.3 (95% CI, 0.5-6.6; I2 = 77.9%) for ACS. Proportion of deaths, reported in 87 articles including 19 181 CS patients (53 CD, 24 ACS, and 20 combined CS cohorts), was 0.05 (95% CI, 0.03-0.06) for all CS subtypes with meta-regression analysis revealing no differences between CS subtypes (P = .052). The proportion of deaths was 0.1 (10%) in articles published before 2000 and 0.03 (3%) in 2000 until the last search for CS (P < .001), CD (P < .001), and ACS (P = .01). The causes of death were atherosclerotic diseases and thromboembolism (43.4%), infection (12.7%), malignancy (10.6%), active disease (3.5%), adrenal insufficiency (3.0%), and suicide (2.2%). Despite improved outcomes in recent years, increased mortality from CS persists. The causes of death highlight the need to prevent and manage comorbidities in addition to treating hypercortisolism.
10.1210/clinem/dgac265
Diagnosis and management of hypertension in patients with Cushing's syndrome: a position statement and consensus of the Working Group on Endocrine Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension.
Journal of hypertension
Endogenous/exogenous Cushing's syndrome is characterized by a cluster of systemic manifestations of hypercortisolism, which cause increased cardiovascular risk. Its biological basis is glucocorticoid excess, acting on various pathogenic processes inducing cardiovascular damage. Hypertension is a common feature in Cushing's syndrome and may persist after normalizing hormone excess and discontinuing steroid therapy. In endogenous Cushing's syndrome, the earlier the diagnosis the sooner management can be employed to offset the deleterious effects of excess cortisol. Such management includes combined treatments directed against the underlying cause and tailored antihypertensive drugs aimed at controlling the consequences of glucocorticoid excess. Experts on endocrine hypertension and members of the Working Group on Endocrine Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) prepared this Consensus document, which summarizes the current knowledge in epidemiology, genetics, diagnosis, and treatment of hypertension in Cushing's syndrome.
10.1097/HJH.0000000000003252
The Socioeconomic Consequences of Cushing's Syndrome: A Nationwide Cohort Study.
The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism
CONTEXT:The long-term somatic and psychiatric consequences of Cushing's syndrome are well-described, but the socioeconomic consequences are largely unknown. OBJECTIVE:We studied employment status, educational level, risk of depression, and other socioeconomic outcomes of Cushing's syndrome in the years before diagnosis and after surgery. DESIGN:Nationwide register-based cohort study. METHODS:We used a validated algorithm to identify 424 patients operated for adrenal (n = 199) or pituitary Cushing's syndrome (n = 225) in Denmark from January 1, 1986 to December 31, 2017. We obtained socioeconomic registry data from 10 years before diagnosis (year -10) to 10 years after surgery (year +10) and included a sex- and age-matched reference population. We identified prognostic factors for returning to work using modified Poisson regression. RESULTS:Compared to the reference population, the patients' employment was permanently reduced from year -6 [relative risk (RR) 0.92, 95% CI 0.84-0.99] to year +10 (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.57-0.76). Sick leave (RR 2.15, 95% CI 1.40-3.32) and disability pension (RR 2.60, 95% CI 2.06-3.27) were still elevated in year +10. Annual income, education, parenthood, relationship status, and risk of depression were also negatively impacted, but parenthood and relationship status normalized after surgery. Among patients, negative predictors of full-time employment after surgery included female sex, low education, comorbidity, and depression. CONCLUSION:Cushing's syndrome negatively affects a wide spectrum of socioeconomic variables many years before diagnosis of which only some normalize after treatment. The data underpin the importance of early diagnosis and continuous follow-up of Cushing's syndrome and, not least, the pervasive health threats of glucocorticoid excess.
10.1210/clinem/dgac174
A New Clinical Model to Estimate the Pre-Test Probability of Cushing's Syndrome: The Cushing Score.
Parasiliti-Caprino Mirko,Bioletto Fabio,Frigerio Tommaso,D'Angelo Valentina,Ceccato Filippo,Ferraù Francesco,Ferrigno Rosario,Minnetti Marianna,Scaroni Carla,Cannavò Salvatore,Pivonello Rosario,Isidori Andrea,Broglio Fabio,Giordano Roberta,Spinello Maurizio,Grottoli Silvia,Arvat Emanuela
Frontiers in endocrinology
Background:Hypercortisolism accounts for relevant morbidity and mortality and is often a diagnostic challenge for clinicians. A prompt diagnosis is necessary to treat Cushing's syndrome as early as possible. Objective:The aim of this study was to develop and validate a clinical model for the estimation of pre-test probability of hypercortisolism in an at-risk population. Design:We conducted a retrospective multicenter case-control study, involving five Italian referral centers for Endocrinology (Turin, Messina, Naples, Padua and Rome). One hundred and fifty patients affected by Cushing's syndrome and 300 patients in which hypercortisolism was excluded were enrolled. All patients were evaluated, according to current guidelines, for the suspicion of hypercortisolism. Results:The Cushing score was built by multivariable logistic regression, considering all main features associated with a clinical suspicion of hypercortisolism as possible predictors. A stepwise backward selection algorithm was used (final model AUC=0.873), then an internal validation was performed through ten-fold cross-validation. Final estimation of the model performance showed an average AUC=0.841, thus reassuring about a small overfitting effect. The retrieved score was structured on a 17.5-point scale: low-risk class (score value: ≤5.5, probability of disease=0.8%); intermediate-low-risk class (score value: 6-8.5, probability of disease=2.7%); intermediate-high-risk class (score value: 9-11.5, probability of disease=18.5%) and finally, high-risk class (score value: ≥12, probability of disease=72.5%). Conclusions:We developed and internally validated a simple tool to determine pre-test probability of hypercortisolism, the Cushing score, that showed a remarkable predictive power for the discrimination between subjects with and without a final diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome.
10.3389/fendo.2021.747549
Role of unilateral adrenalectomy in bilateral adrenal hyperplasias with Cushing's syndrome.
Meloche-Dumas Léamarie,Mercier Frédéric,Lacroix André
Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism
Primary bilateral adrenocortical hyperplasias are rare forms of pituitary ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome (CS). They are divided between primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (PBMAH) and micronodular adrenal hyperplasia (MiBAH), which is subdivided in primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD) and isolated micronodular adrenocortical disease (i-MAD). One of the most debated aspects surrounding these entities is their most appropriate therapy. Although bilateral adrenalectomy (BA) has previously been the most utilized therapy for patients with overt CS, recent studies have indicated that unilateral adrenalectomy (UA) can be effective in patients with PBMAH and some with MiBAH with fewer long-term side effects. Medical therapies can also be used for bridging to surgery or rarely in the long-term for these patients. We review the various degrees of CS resulting from PBMAH and MiBAH, with a special focus on their respective therapies including UA, taking into account the recent pathophysiological and genetics findings.
10.1016/j.beem.2021.101486
Commentary on article: Adrenal crisis in treated patients with Cushing's syndrome.
Torpy David J
European journal of endocrinology
A study has examined the rates of adrenal crises in patients treated with pituitary or adrenal surgery. Rates were substantial (approximately 9 per 100 patient years), perhaps representing suppression of corticotrope ACTH secretion and deprivation of normal corticotrope number postoperatively. Hormone withdrawal syndrome may have contributed to the rates of apparent adrenal crises given the definition used. Higher rates were seen in patients given relatively high dose glucocorticoids postoperatively in one of the two centres where patients were treated - perhaps some of the patients in the high dose centre had longer periods of corticotrope suppression from exogenous glucocorticoids, increasing the risk period for adrenal crises. The question of optimal glucocorticoid dose and weaning rate after cure of Cushing's syndrome remains a balance between weaning at a rate sufficiently rapid to allow resumption of normal corticotrope function thereby preventing adrenal crises and providing sufficient glucocorticoid support to avoid hormone withdrawal syndrome or even precipitating an adrenal crisis, in the vulnerable 4-6 month period after successful surgery. There is likely to be considerable inter-individual variability in optimum glucocorticoid dose and weaning rate so that close clinical and biochemical monitoring is currently a practical approach.
10.1530/EJE-19-0475
MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Cardiovascular risk assessment, thromboembolism, and infection prevention in Cushing's syndrome: a practical approach.
Varlamov Elena V,Langlois Fabienne,Vila Greisa,Fleseriu Maria
European journal of endocrinology
Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with increased mortality that is driven by cardiovascular, thromboembolic, and infection complications. Although these events are expected to decrease during disease remission, incidence often transiently increases postoperatively and is not completely normalized in the long-term. It is important to diagnose and treat cardiovascular, thromboembolic, and infection complications concomitantly with CS treatment. Management of hyperglycemia/diabetes, hypertension, hypokalemia, hyperlipidemia, and other cardiovascular risk factors is generally undertaken in accordance with clinical care standards. Medical therapy for CS may be needed even prior to surgery in severe and/or prolonged hypercortisolism, and treatment adjustments can be made based on disease pathophysiology and drug-drug interactions. Thromboprophylaxis should be considered for CS patients with severe hypercortisolism and/or postoperatively, based on individual risk factors of thromboembolism and bleeding. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis should be considered for patients with high urinary free cortisol at the initiation of hypercortisolism treatment.
10.1530/EJE-20-1309
The management of Cushing's disease - from investigation to treatment.
Juszczak Agata,Grossman Ashley
Endokrynologia Polska
Cushing's disease (CD) is caused by an adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) secreting pituitary adenoma and it is the commonest cause of endogenous hypercortisolism. When high suspicion of Cushing's syndrome (CS) exists, recommended screening tests include the overnight dexamethasone suppression test, the low-dose dexamethasone suppression test, or late night salivary cortisol. If the initial test is positive on two occasions, the patient should be referred to a specialist endocrinologist for in-patient assessment, while elevated midnight serum cortisol and a low dose dexamethasone suppression test will confirm endogenous hypercortisolaemia. Plasma ACTH measurement at 9 am follows and, if elevated, MRI scan of the pituitary should be performed. Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) test helps to distinguish pituitary from ectopic ACTH-dependent CS, though bilateral petrosal sinus sampling remains the gold standard. Transsphenoidal surgery is the recognised first-line treatment of CD, and can be repeated if unsuccessful. Second line therapy includes pituitary radiotherapy, bilateral adrenalectomy and medical treatment. Pituitary radiotherapy is very effective but it usually takes several years for its full effect to be seen. Bilateral adrenalectomy is useful in acutely unwell patients, who are unable to tolerate medical therapy. The most effective medical agents inhibit adrenal steroidogenesis and include metyrapone, ketoconazole, mitotane and etomidate. They are used in preparation for surgery, when an operation has been unsuccessful, or when the effects of radiotherapy are being awaited. Cabergoline and pasireotide decrease ACTH production, but are effective in only 30% and 25% of patients, respectively. It is crucial for patients with CD to be managed in specialist endocrine centres, as the expertise of multidisciplinary team members predicts the best outcome.
[Cushing syndrome: Physiopathology, etiology and principles of therapy].
Chabre Olivier
Presse medicale (Paris, France : 1983)
The most frequent cause of Cushing's syndrome is iatrogenic, as Cushing's syndrome is the unavoidable consequence of long-term glucocorticoid treatment using more than 7.5 mg prednisone per day. The most frequent cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is Cushing's disease (CD), which is an ACTH dependent hypercortisolism linked to a pituitary corticotroph adenoma. This adenoma is often very small, its diagnosis may require bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling and the first line treatment of CD is transsphenoidal surgery by an expert neurosurgeon. The second line treatments include drugs that can act either on the pituitary adenoma or on adrenal steroidogenesis, pituitary radiotherapy or bilateral adrenalectomy. Ectopic ACTH dependent Cushing's syndrome is linked either to poorly differentiated endocrine tumors with a very poor prognosis, such as small cell lung cancer, or to well differentiated endocrine tumors, such as bronchial carcinoid tumors, which have a good prognosis when treated by surgery, but may be very difficult to localize. Adrenal Cushing's syndromes, which are independent of pituitary ACTH secretion, include adrenal cortex carcinoma, which requires abdominal surgery with extended adrenalectomy by an expert surgeon, adrenal adenoma which is treated by laparoscopic unilateral adrenalectomy and bilateral macronodular hyperplasia, whose surgical treatment may require unilateral or bilateral adrenalectomy. Treatment of Cushing's syndrome generally leads to spectacular clinical results, which must not hide the fact that the reversibility of some signs is actually incomplete. This underlines the need for a timely multidisciplinary management of the patients by an expert team.
10.1016/j.lpm.2014.02.001
Ectopic Cushing's syndrome in light of modern diagnostic techniques and treatment options.
Witek Przemysław,Witek Joanna,Zieliński Grzegorz,Podgajny Zbigniew,Kamiński Grzegorz
Neuro endocrinology letters
Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion (EAS) is responsible for approximately 10-15% cases of Cushing's syndrome. EAS is associated with various tumors such as small cell lung cancer and well-differentiated bronchial or gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors. Hormonal diagnostics include assessments in basic conditions as well as dynamic tests, such as the high-dose dexamethasone suppression test and corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) stimulation test. Treatment selection depends on the type of tumor and its extent. In the case of neuroendocrine tumors, the main treatments are surgery and administration of somatostatin analogs that may be additionally radiolabeled for targeted radiotherapy. The tumor histology and the presence and control of hypercortisolemia and metastases are of major importance in prognosis. In this article we presented the principles of modern hormonal and imaging diagnostics techniques as well as the key issues associated with treatment of ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome due to EAS.
Cushing's syndrome: epidemiology and developments in disease management.
Sharma Susmeeta T,Nieman Lynnette K,Feelders Richard A
Clinical epidemiology
Cushing's syndrome is a rare disorder resulting from prolonged exposure to excess glucocorticoids. Early diagnosis and treatment of Cushing's syndrome is associated with a decrease in morbidity and mortality. Clinical presentation can be highly variable, and establishing the diagnosis can often be difficult. Surgery (resection of the pituitary or ectopic source of adrenocorticotropic hormone, or unilateral or bilateral adrenalectomy) remains the optimal treatment in all forms of Cushing's syndrome, but may not always lead to remission. Medical therapy (steroidogenesis inhibitors, agents that decrease adrenocorticotropic hormone levels or glucocorticoid receptor antagonists) and pituitary radiotherapy may be needed as an adjunct. A multidisciplinary approach, long-term follow-up, and treatment modalities customized to each individual are essential for optimal control of hypercortisolemia and management of comorbidities.
10.2147/CLEP.S44336
A critical reappraisal of bilateral adrenalectomy for ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome.
Reincke Martin,Ritzel Katrin,Oßwald Andrea,Berr Christina,Stalla Günter,Hallfeldt Klaus,Reisch Nicole,Schopohl Jochen,Beuschlein Felix
European journal of endocrinology
OBJECTIVE:Our aim was to review short- and long-term outcomes of patients treated with bilateral adrenalectomy (BADx) in ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome. METHODS:We reviewed the literature and analysed our experience with 53 patients treated with BADx since 1990 in our institution. RESULTS:BADx is considered if ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome is refractory to other treatment modalities. In Cushing's disease (CD), BADx is mainly used as an ultima ratio after transsphenoidal surgery and medical therapies have failed. In these cases, the time span between the first diagnosis of CD and treatment with BADx is relatively long (median 44 months). In ectopic Cushing's syndrome, the time from diagnosis to BADx is shorter (median 2 months), and BADx is often performed as an emergency procedure because of life-threatening complications of severe hypercortisolism. In both situations, BADx is relatively safe (median surgical morbidity 15%; median surgical mortality 3%) and provides excellent control of hypercortisolism; Cushing's-associated signs and symptoms are rapidly corrected, and co-morbidities are stabilised. In CD, the quality of life following BADx is rapidly improving, and long-term mortality is low. Specific long-term complications include the development of adrenal crisis and Nelson's syndrome. In ectopic Cushing's syndrome, long-term mortality is high but is mostly dependent on the prognosis of the underlying malignant neuroendocrine tumour. CONCLUSION:BADx is a relatively safe and highly effective treatment, and it provides adequate control of long-term co-morbidities associated with hypercortisolism.
10.1530/EJE-15-0265
Update on Hypercortisolism Therapy.
Arnaldi Giorgio,Trementino Laura
Frontiers of hormone research
Treating Cushing's syndrome is very challenging and should be tailored to the patient. Surgery is considered the gold standard treatment for both pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting adenomas, ectopic ACTH-secreting tumors and adrenal tumors, as the chance to be successful is high, especially for adrenal tumors, when performed in specialized centers by expert surgeons. Pituitary radiotherapy represents a second-line treatment in patients not cured with surgery, or when medical treatment is not suitable/efficacious, although the rate of cure is largely variable and achieved only in the long term, and is associated with the risk of developing secondary hypopituitarism. Several drugs, acting at the pituitary, adrenal or peripheral tissue level, are available. Medical treatment is indicated as second-line therapy for patients unsuccessfully treated with pituitary surgery, or in those awaiting radiotherapy to become effective, or prior to adrenalectomy, and as the first-line approach to prepare patients for surgery, especially those with severe comorbidities, or in those not suitable/refusing surgery. The success rate of medical therapy is variable, depending on the cause and severity of hypercortisolism, and is often associated with important side effects.
10.1159/000443869
Multisystem morbidity and mortality in Cushing's syndrome: a cohort study.
Dekkers Olaf M,Horváth-Puhó Erzsébet,Jørgensen Jens Otto L,Cannegieter Suzanne C,Ehrenstein Vera,Vandenbroucke Jan P,Pereira Alberto M,Sørensen Henrik Toft
The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism
CONTEXT:Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with hypercoagulability, insulin resistance, hypertension, bone loss, and immunosuppression. To date, no adequately large cohort study has been performed to assess the multisystem effects of CS. OBJECTIVE:We aimed to examine the risks for mortality, cardiovascular disease, fractures, peptic ulcers, and infections in CS patients before and after treatment. DESIGN:Population-based cohort study. SETTING:Source population was the entire population of Denmark (1980 to 2010). Data were obtained from the Danish National Registry of Patients and the Danish Civil Registration System. PATIENTS:Benign CS of adrenal or pituitary origin and a matched population comparison cohort were included. OUTCOME MEASURES:We used Cox regression, and computed hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Morbidity was investigated in the 3 years before diagnosis; morbidity and mortality were assessed during complete follow-up after diagnosis and treatment. RESULTS:Included were 343 CS patients and 34 300 controls. Mortality was twice as high in CS patients (HR 2.3, 95%CI 1.8-2.9) compared with controls. Patients with CS were at increased risk for venous thromboembolism (HR 2.6, 95%CI 1.5-4.7), myocardial infarction (HR 3.7, 95%CI 2.4-5.5), stroke (HR 2.0, 95%CI 1.3-3.2), peptic ulcers (HR 2.0, 95%CI 1.1-3.6), fractures (HR 1.4, 95%CI 1.0-1.9), and infections (HR 4.9, 95%CI 3.7-6.4). This increased multimorbidity risk was present before diagnosis. Mortality and risk of myocardial infarction remained elevated during long-term follow-up. Mortality and risks for acute myocardial infarction, venous thromboembolism, stroke, and infections were similarly increased in adrenal and pituitary CS. CONCLUSIONS:Despite the apparently benign character of the disease, CS is associated with clearly increased mortality and multisystem morbidity, even before diagnosis and treatment.
10.1210/jc.2012-3582
Coagulation Profile Dynamics in Pediatric Patients with Cushing Syndrome: A Prospective, Observational Comparative Study.
Birdwell Leah,Lodish Maya,Tirosh Amit,Chittiboina Prashant,Keil Meg,Lyssikatos Charlampos,Belyavskaya Elena,Feelders Richard A,Stratakis Constantine A
The Journal of pediatrics
OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the association between Cushing syndrome and hypercoagulability in children. STUDY DESIGN:A prospective, observational study was performed of 54 patients with Cushing syndrome, 15.1 ± 3.9 years, treated at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Coagulation profiles were taken before and 6-12 months after surgery and compared with18 normocortisolemic children, 13.7 ± 3.6 years. RESULTS:At baseline, patients with Cushing syndrome had greater levels of the procoagulant factor VIII (FVIII) vs controls (145 IU/dL ± 84 vs 99 ± 47, P = .04); 6-12 months after surgery, FVIII levels decreased to 111 ± 47, P = .05. Patients with Cushing syndrome had greater levels of the antifibrinolytic α2-antiplasmin, 96 ± 17% vs 82 ± 26%, P = .015. After surgery, antifibrinolytic α2-antiplasmin levels decreased to 82 ± 24%, P < .001. Anticoagulants were greater in patients with Cushing syndrome vs controls at baseline, including protein C (138 ± 41% vs 84 ± 25%, P < .001), protein S (94 ± 19% vs 74 ± 19%, P = .001), and antithrombin III (96 ± 18% vs 77 ± 13%, P < .0001). The 24-hour urinary free cortisol levels correlated positively with FVIII levels, r = 0.43, P = .004. CONCLUSION:Children with Cushing syndrome had elevated procoagulants, antifibrinolytics, and anticoagulants at baseline compared with controls; normalization of coagulation measures was seen after surgical cure. Despite the increase in anticoagulants, hypercortisolemia is associated with a hypercoagulable state in children, as is the case in adults. This finding has potential implications for prevention of venous thromboembolism in children with Cushing syndrome. TRIAL REGISTRATION:ClinicalTrials.gov:NCT00001595.
10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.06.087
Glucocorticoid replacement therapy: are patients over treated and does it matter?
Peacey S R,Guo C Y,Robinson A M,Price A,Giles M A,Eastell R,Weetman A P
Clinical endocrinology
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Adequate assessment of patients on glucocorticoid replacement therapy is of great importance to avoid the consequences of under or over treatment, but no simple test is available for this. The aims of this study were (1) to assess adequacy of glucocorticoid replacement in hypoadrenal patients, (2) to correlate serum cortisol levels (cortisol day curve) with 24-hour urine free cortisol excretion and (3) to assess the impact of glucocorticoid dose optimization on markers of bone formation and bone resorption. DESIGN:Cross-sectional study of current replacement therapy and a prospective study of the effect of dose alteration on bone turnover markers. PATIENTS:Thirty-two consecutive patients on replacement glucocorticoid therapy (12 Addison's disease, 20 hypopituitarism) from a University teaching hospital out-patient department. MEASUREMENTS:Serum and urinary cortisol, osteocalcin, N-telopeptide of type I collagen (NTX) and bone mineral density. RESULTS:28/32 (88%) patients required a change of therapy; 24/32 (75%) a total reduction in dose, 18/32 (56%) a change in replacement therapy regimen or drug and 14/32 (44%) both changes. The mean daily dose of hydrocortisone was reduced from 29.5 +/- 1.2 to 20.8 +/- 1.0 mg. A significant correlation was found between peak cortisol and 24-hour urine free cortisol/ creatinine (Spearman correlation r = 0.60, P < 0.0001; n = 51). Following hydrocortisone dose reduction, median osteocalcin increased from 16.7 micrograms/l (range 8.2-65.7) to 19.9 micrograms/l (8.2-56.3); P < 0.01, with no change in the NTX/creatinine ratio. CONCLUSIONS:A high proportion of patients on conventional corticosteroid replacement therapy are over treated or on inappropriate replacement regimens. To reduce the long term risk of osteoporosis, corticosteroid replacement therapy should be individually assessed and over replacement avoided.
Sex differences in the human metabolism of cortisol.
Raven P W,Taylor N F
Endocrine research
Sex differences in steroid metabolism have been clearly demonstrated in animal studies, but few studies have addressed this question in the human. Our preliminary studies suggested human sex differences in both cortisol production and metabolism. We therefore looked in more detail at indices of cortisol metabolism derived from 24 hour urinary steroid profiles in a group of 20 men and 20 women who were age-matched, drug-free and had no endocrine disorder. Steroid analysis was by high resolution gas chromatography. Men excreted more total cortisol metabolites (7620 +/- 620 v 4750 +/- 380 micrograms/24 h, p < 0.001), 11-oxo metabolites of cortisol (11-oxo FM, 4320 +/- 400 v 2890 +/- 250 micrograms/24 h, p < 0.001) and 11 beta-hydroxy metabolites of cortisol (11-OH FM, 3290 +/- 240 v 1860 +/- 140 micrograms/24 h, p < 0.001). These differences remained significant when corrected for body surface area. The ratio of 11-oxo FM/11-OH FM, an index of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11-HSD) activity, was higher in women (1.57 +/- 0.07 v 1.31 +/- 0.06, p < 0.01). The ratios of 5 alpha/5 beta and 20-oxo/20-OH metabolites of cortisol were both higher in men (1.07 +/- 0.15 v 0.58 +/- 0.04, p < 0.01, and 2.78 +/- 0.06 v 2.27 +/- 0.11, p < 0.01), while the ratio of 20 alpha/20 beta metabolites of cortisol was higher in women (1.79 +/- 0.13 v 1.32 +/- 0.06, p < 0.01). We conclude that there are considerable sex differences in both the production and metabolism of cortisol in healthy men and women. In particular, the data are consistent with a sex difference in 11-HSD activity, with relatively greater conversion of cortisol to cortisone in women.
10.1080/07435809609043772
Hypercoagulability in Cushing Syndrome, Prevalence of Thrombotic Events: A Large, Single-Center, Retrospective Study.
Journal of the Endocrine Society
BACKGROUND:The risk of Cushing syndrome (CS) patients experiencing a thrombotic event (TE) is significantly higher (odds ratio; OR 18%) than that of the general population. However, there are currently no anticoagulation guidelines. METHODS:A retrospective, single-center, longitudinal study of patients undergoing all types of treatment-surgical (pituitary, unilateral, and bilateral adrenalectomy) and medical treatment-was undertaken. TEs were recorded at any point up until last patient follow-up; myocardial infarction (MI), deep venous thrombosis (DVT), and pulmonary embolism (PE) or stroke. Patients' doses and complications of anticoagulation were recorded. RESULTS:Included were 208 patients; a total of 165 (79.3%) were women, and mean age at presentation was 44 ± 14.7 years. Thirty-nine (18.2%) patients had a TE; extremity DVT (38%), cerebrovascular accident (27%), MI (21%), and PE (14%). Of 56 TEs, 27 (48%) were arterial and 29 (52%) were venous. Patients who underwent bilateral adrenalectomy (BLA) had an odds ratio of 3.74 (95% CI 1.69-8.27) of developing a TE. Of patients with TEs, 40.5% experienced the event within the first 60 days after surgery. Baseline 24-hour urinary free cortisol levels did not differ in patients with or without TE after BLA. Of 197 patients who underwent surgery, 50 (25.38%) received anticoagulation after surgery, with 2% having bleeding complications. CONCLUSIONS:The risk of TEs in patients with CS was approximately 20%. Many patients had more than 1 event, with higher risk 30 to 60 days postoperatively. The optimal prophylactic anticoagulation duration is unknown, but most likely needs to continue up to 60 days postoperatively, particularly after BLA.
10.1210/jendso/bvz033
Acute and Life-threatening Complications in Cushing Syndrome: Prevalence, Predictors, and Mortality.
Schernthaner-Reiter Marie Helene,Siess Christina,Micko Alexander,Zauner Christian,Wolfsberger Stefan,Scheuba Christian,Riss Philipp,Knosp Engelbert,Kautzky-Willer Alexandra,Luger Anton,Vila Greisa
The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism
CONTEXT:Cushing syndrome (CS) results in significant morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE:To study acute and life-threatening complications in patients with active CS. METHODS:We performed a retrospective cohort study using inpatient and outpatient records of patients with CS in a tertiary center. A total of 242 patients with CS were included, including 213 with benign CS (pituitary n = 101, adrenal n = 99, ectopic n = 13), and 29 with malignant disease. We collected acute complications necessitating hospitalization, from appearance of first symptoms of hypercortisolism until 1 year after biochemical remission. Mortality data were obtained from the national registry. Baseline factors relating to and predicting acute complications were tested using uni- and multivariate analysis. RESULTS:The prevalence of acute complications was 62% in patients with benign pituitary CS, 40% in patients with benign adrenal CS, and 100% in patients with ectopic CS. Complications observed in patients with benign CS included infections (25%), thromboembolic events (17%), hypokalemia (13%), hypertensive crises (9%), cardiac arrhythmias (5%), and acute coronary events (3%). Among these patients, 23% had already been hospitalized for acute complications before CS was suspected, and half of complications occurred after the first surgery. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and 24-hour urinary free cortisol positively correlated with the number of acute complications per patient. Patients with malignant disease had significantly higher rates of acute complications. Mortality during the observation period was 2.8% and 59% in benign and malignant CS, respectively. CONCLUSIONS:This analysis highlights the whole spectrum of acute and life-threatening complications in CS, and their high prevalence even before disease diagnosis and after successful surgery.
10.1210/clinem/dgab058
Effect of hypercortisolism and ACTH on the metabolism of cortisol.
Phillipov G
Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes : official journal, German Society of Endocrinology [and] German Diabetes Association
The effects of hypercortisolemia and ACTH on the metabolism of cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Cushing's syndrome, and exogenous ACTH and cortisol administration were investigated by analysis of the respective urinary tetrahydro-metabolites of cortisol (THF and aTHF) and cortisone (THE) by capillary gas chromatography. The results for the patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia establish that ACTH hypersecretion in the absence of an associated marked elevation of plasma cortisol does not cause inhibition of the 11beta-OHSD enzyme. In contrast elevated plasma cortisol levels (adrenal adenoma or intravenous cortisol administration) in the presence of suppressed ACTH secretion leads to significant inhibition of the peripheral conversion of cortisol to cortisone. The latter results are equivalent to the mode of cortisol metabolism noted during clinical states of ACTH hypersecretion and hypercortisolemia (Cushing's disease, ectopic ACTH syndrome and ACTH administration). The overall findings provide convincing evidence that ACTH hypersecretion is not associated with specific in vivo inhibition of 11beta-OHSD enzyme activity.
10.1055/s-0029-1211951
The role of adrenalectomy in Cushing's syndrome.
Sarkar R,Thompson N W,McLeod M K
Surgery
Forty-four patients with Cushing's syndrome were treated by adrenalectomy between 1975 and 1989. Twenty patients had adrenal adenomas: 13 with obvious Cushing's syndrome and 7 whose disease was subclinical, detected after evaluation of an incidentally discovered adrenal mass (es). Twelve patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomies for Cushing's disease after failed transsphenoidal explorations and pituitary irradiation. Six patients had primary adrenal hyperplasia, five as manifestations of Carney's complex. Two others underwent bilateral adrenalectomies for ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone from carcinoid tumors. Four patients had adrenocortical carcinoma treated with transabdominal adrenalectomy. Three are alive from 8 years to 5 months. There was one postoperative death (2.3%) caused by coagulopathy and multiple organ failure and three (7%) minor postoperative complications. Follow-up showed good to excellent results in 95% of patients. It is concluded that adrenalectomy provides prompt relief from the severe morbidity of Cushing's syndrome regardless of the cause. It is the treatment of choice for adrenal adenomas, carcinomas, primary hyperplasia, and selected patients with Cushing's disease.
Cushing's syndrome: problems in diagnosis.
Aron D C,Tyrrell J B,Fitzgerald P A,Findling J W,Forsham P H
Medicine
Cushing's syndrome, an unusual group of disorders characterized by hypercortisolism, must be considered in the differential diagnosis of such common clinical problems as hirsutism, menstrual irregularity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and obesity. Its distinct forms--pituitary-dependent Cushing's syndrome (Cushing's disease), adrenal tumor and ectopic ACTH syndrome--must be identified correctly so that specific therapy can be administered. In the majority of cases, use of a relatively simple diagnostic sequence will provide accurate and rapid diagnosis. However, in our experience with more than 60 patients, diagnostic difficulties may arise from a variety of conditions (e.g., drug interference, alcohol ingestion, and depression). In addition, unusual circumstances, such as unexpected responses to dexamethasone, may complicate the diagnosis. Our approach to these problems is illustrated through a report of seven cases, and we emphasize that the proper management of Cushing's syndrome mandates a thorough marshalling of all the available data.
10.1097/00005792-198101000-00003
Tumors of the adrenal cortex and Cushing's syndrome.
Scott H W,Abumrad N N,Orth D N
Annals of surgery
Fifty-nine patients with Cushing's syndrome, due to adrenocortical tumor, were studied and treated during the period 1953 through 1983 at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Cushing's syndrome is caused by hypercortisolism that can be due to (1) medicinal use of steroids, (2) excess pituitary secretion of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) (Cushing's disease), (3) adrenocortical tumor, benign or malignant, and (4) the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Clinical and endocrinologic features of Cushing's syndrome are described, and differential diagnosis of adrenocortical tumor by precise endocrinologic studies is detailed. Computerized axial tomographic (CAT) scan is currently the most accurate imaging modality for preoperative localization of tumors. Preoperative differential diagnosis between adrenocortical adenoma and carcinoma has become fairly accurate. Operative approaches in each category are described. Follow-up from 1 to 30 years has been completed for all patients, except for one who was lost after 7 years. Results of surgical treatment of adrenocortical adenomas are excellent, but the salvage from adrenocortical carcinomas is poor.
10.1097/00000658-198505000-00007
Therapeutic Strategies for the Treatment of Severe Cushing's Syndrome.
Alexandraki Krystallenia I,Grossman Ashley B
Drugs
Severe Cushing's syndrome presents an acute emergency and is defined by massively elevated random serum cortisol [more than 36 μg/dL (1000 nmol/L)] at any time or a 24-h urinary free cortisol more than fourfold the upper limit of normal and/or severe hypokalaemia (<3.0 mmol/L), along with the recent onset of one or more of the following: sepsis, opportunistic infection, intractable hypokalaemia, uncontrolled hypertension, heart failure, gastrointestinal haemorrhage, glucocorticoid-induced acute psychosis, progressive debilitating myopathy, thromboembolism or uncontrolled hyperglycaemia and ketocacidosis. Treatment focuses on the management of the severe metabolic disturbances followed by rapid resolution of the hypercortisolaemia, and subsequent confirmation of the cause. Emergency lowering of the elevated serum cortisol is most rapidly achieved with oral metyrapone and/or ketoconazole; if parenteral therapy is required then intravenous etomidate is rapidly effective in almost all cases, but all measures require careful supervision. The optimal order and combination of drugs to treat severe hypercortisolaemia-mostly in the context of ectopic ACTH-secreting syndrome, adrenocortical carcinoma or an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma (mainly macroadenomas)-is not yet established. Combination therapy may be useful not only to rapidly control cortisol excess but also to lower individual drug dosages and consequently the possibility of adverse effects. If medical treatments fail, bilateral adrenalectomy should be performed in the shortest possible time span to prevent the debilitating complications of uncontrolled hypercortisolaemia.
10.1007/s40265-016-0539-6
Adrenalectomy for treatment of Cushing syndrome: results in 122 patients and long-term follow-up studies.
Imai T,Funahashi H,Tanaka Y,Tobinaga J,Wada M,Morita-Matsuyama T,Ohiso Y,Takagi H
World journal of surgery
Patients with Cushing syndrome (n = 122) who underwent adrenalectomy from 1957 through 1993 were reviewed for survival and complications. Of the 122 patients, 70 had adrenocortical adenoma, 30 Cushing's disease, 6 primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD), 7 other types of primary nodular hyperplasia, 5 adrenocortical carcinoma, and 4 ectopic ACTH syndrome. Sixty-five patients with adrenocortical adenoma are alive, and the survival rate was equal to the age-matched control population, when patients who died of the postoperative complication were excluded. Of the patients with Cushing's disease, 20 are alive; and 10 of 16 patients (63%) who were followed-up and evaluated had skin pigmentation. Four of sixteen patients (25%) developed Nelson's syndrome. Four PPNAD patients and five with other types of nodular hyperplasia are alive. Most of these patients underwent bilateral total adrenalectomy, but some patients remitted after unilateral adrenalectomy. All of five adrenocortical carcinoma patients and four with ectopic ACTH syndrome died within 2 years after operation. The prognosis for patients with adrenocortical adenoma after unilateral adrenalectomy is excellent, though it is important to avoid operative complications. The rapid cure of signs and symptoms of glucocorticoid excess after total adrenalectomy is ensured, and prognosis is satisfactory under careful glucocorticoid replacement, making total adrenalectomy an alternative treatment for Cushing's disease.
Clinicopathological correlates of adrenal Cushing's syndrome.
Duan Kai,Hernandez Karen Gomez,Mete Ozgur
Postgraduate medical journal
Endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a rare endocrine disorder that incurs significant cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, due to glucocorticoid excess. It comprises adrenal (20%) and non-adrenal (80%) aetiologies. While the majority of cases are attributed to pituitary or ectopic corticotropin (ACTH) overproduction, primary cortisol-producing adrenal cortical lesions are increasingly recognised in the pathophysiology of Cushing's syndrome. Our understanding of this disease has progressed substantially over the past decade. Recently, important mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of adrenal hypercortisolism have been elucidated with the discovery of mutations in cyclic AMP signalling (PRKACA, PRKAR1A, GNAS, PDE11A, PDE8B), armadillo repeat containing 5 gene (ARMC5) a putative tumour suppressor gene, aberrant G-protein-coupled receptors, and intra-adrenal secretion of ACTH. Accurate subtyping of Cushing's syndrome is crucial for treatment decision-making and requires a complete integration of clinical, biochemical, imaging and pathology findings. Pathological correlates in the adrenal glands include hyperplasia, adenoma and carcinoma. While the most common presentation is diffuse adrenocortical hyperplasia secondary to excess ACTH production, this entity is usually treated with pituitary or ectopic tumour resection. Therefore, when confronted with adrenalectomy specimens in the setting of Cushing's syndrome, surgical pathologists are most commonly exposed to adrenocortical adenomas, carcinomas and primary macronodular or micronodular hyperplasia. This review provides an update on the rapidly evolving knowledge of adrenal Cushing's syndrome and discusses the clinicopathological correlations of this important disease.
10.1136/postgradmedj-2014-202612rep
Mortality in Patients with Endogenous Cushing's Syndrome.
Javanmard Pedram,Duan Daisy,Geer Eliza B
Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America
Cushing's syndrome is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Cardiovascular events, sepsis, and thromboembolism are the leading causes of mortality. Patient's with Cushing's due to a pituitary adenoma and those with Cushing's due to benign adrenal adenoma have relatively good survival outcomes often mirroring that of the general population. Persistent or recurrent disease is associated with high mortality risk. Ectopic Cushing's syndrome and Cushing's due to adrenocortical carcinoma confer the highest mortality risk among Cushing's etiologies. Prompt diagnosis and treatment, and specific monitoring for and treatment of associated comorbidities are essential to decrease the burden of mortality from Cushing's.
10.1016/j.ecl.2018.02.005
[Importance of the CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome].
Korsić M,Plavsić V,Besenski N,Skorić T,Giljević Z,Zarković K,Zarković N,Zaninović L,Paladino J,Aganović I
Lijecnicki vjesnik
In the group of 13 patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS) CRH test was performed by sampling the blood from peripheral vein and in eight patients also after inferior petrosal sinus catheterization (IPSC) to resolve the disease etiology. In the group of patients with Cushing's disease (CD, n = 11), which was proven by surgery and adenoma immunohistochemistry, 10/11 had in CRH test the significant increase of cortisol and ACTH in the peripheral blood. Among two patients with ectopic ACTH syndrome one had the significant increase of both hormones in CRH test. After IPSC the ratio of ACTH in the petrosal sinus and in the peripheral vein was significant in 4/8 patients before, and in 6/8 after CRH administration. The intersinus gradient was significant in 3/8 patients before, and in 4/8 after CRH test. According to our results we can conclude that the determination of ACTH in the blood from peripheral veins after CRH administration is a very sensitive method for differential diagnosis of CS, while the results after IPSC were less sensitive in our conditions than those described in the literature.
Surgical management of Cushing's syndrome.
Imai T,Kikumori T,Funahashi H,Nakao A
Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie
Patients with Cushing's syndrome (137 total) who underwent adrenalectomy from 1957 through 1999 were reviewed for survival and complications. Of the 137 patients, 83 had adrenocortical adenoma, 30 Cushing's disease, seven primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD), eight adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)-independent macronodular hyperplasia, five adrenocortical carcinoma, and four ectopic ACTH syndromes. Seventy-eight patients with adrenocortical adenoma are alive, and their survival rate was equal to the age-matched control population, when patients who died of postoperative complications were excluded. Of the patients with Cushing's disease, 20 are alive, and ten of 16 patients (63%) who were followed and evaluated, had skin pigmentation. Four of 16 patients (25%) developed Nelson's syndrome. Five PPNAD patients and six with ACTH-independent macronodular hyperplasia are alive. All five adrenocortical carcinoma patients and four with ectopic ACTH syndrome died within two years after operation. The prognosis for patients with adrenocortical adenoma after unilateral adrenalectomy is excellent, though it is important to avoid operative complications. The rapid disappearance of signs and symptoms of glucocorticoid excess after total adrenalectomy is assured, and the prognosis is satisfactory under careful glucocorticoid replacement, making total adrenalectomy an alternative treatment for Cushing's disease.
10.1016/s0753-3322(00)80031-1
Demographic Characteristics, Etiology, and Comorbidities of Patients with Cushing's Syndrome: A 10-Year Retrospective Study at a Large General Hospital in China.
Zhou Jingya,Zhang Meng,Bai Xue,Cui Shengnan,Pang Cheng,Lu Lin,Pang Haiyu,Guo Xiaopeng,Wang Yi,Xing Bing
International journal of endocrinology
PURPOSE:To investigate the demographic characteristics, etiology, and comorbidities of Cushing's syndrome (CS) patients at a large medical center in China. METHODS:Records on CS patients discharged from 2008 to 2017 were retrieved from the hospital discharge abstract database (DAD) using ICD-10 codes. Demographic characteristics, etiology, and comorbidity data were analyzed. RESULTS:Cushing's disease (CD) accounted for 63.0% of CS patients, followed by adrenocortical adenoma (ACA) (20.9%), primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (BMAH) (6.2%), ectopic ACTH syndrome (EAS) (5.9%), primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD) (1.8%), and adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) (1.0%). CD, ACA, ACC, and PPNAD presented marked preponderances in women (4.1 : 1, 10.5 : 1, 4.3 : 1, and 2.3 : 1, respectively), while BMAH (59.8%) and EAS (51.0%) showed slightly higher preponderances in men. CD patients were younger than ACA and EAS patients (36.1 ± 12.9 years vs. 39.4 ± 12.7 years and 36.1 ± 12.9 years vs. 41.0 ± 15.8, < 0.001); PPNAD patients were the youngest (24.2 ± 10.8 years, < 0.001), and BMAH patients were the oldest (51.3 ± 9.9 years, < 0.001). Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis without fractures, osteoporotic fractures, dyslipidemia, and fatty liver occurred more frequently in CD patients than in ACA patients ( < 0.001 for all). Osteoporotic fractures were observed more frequently in PPAND than in ACA (26.7% vs. 9.0%, < 0.001) and BMAH (26.7% vs. 4.9%, < 0.001) patients. EAS patients had more severe and diverse comorbidities, with higher prevalences of hypokalemia (52.0%), diabetes mellitus (61.2%), and osteoporotic fractures (28.6%). When adjusted for age, male CD patients were associated with hypertension (OR = 2.266, 95% CI: 1.524-3.371, and < 0.001), osteoporotic fractures (OR = 2.274, 95% CI: 1.568-3.298, and < 0.001), fatty liver (OR = 1.435, 95% CI: 1.028-2.003, and = 0.034), and hypokalemia (OR = 1.944, 95% CI: 1.280-2.951, and = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS:The proposed method efficiently evaluates CS patients' epidemiological profiles using hospital DADs with ICD-10 codes and thus may enrich the limited epidemiological data and contribute to clinical practice for CS.
10.1155/2019/7159696
Cyclic Cushing's syndrome: an overview.
Mantero Franco,Scaroni Carla M,Albiger Nora M E
Pituitary
Cyclic Cushing's syndrome (CS) involves rhythmic fluctuations in ACTH secretion resulting in a cyclic variation of adrenal steroid production. In the majority of cases, cyclic CS is caused by an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma, but it can also be due to ectopic ACTH production or an adrenal adenoma. This condition should be strongly suspected in patients with symptoms or signs of hypercortisolism but normal cortisol levels and paradoxical responses to the dexamethasone test, that may reflect an increasing or decreasing endogenous hormone activity. Dynamic tests are best interpreted if they are performed during a sustained period of hypercortisolism. Sometimes, it is necessary to confirm the diagnosis over lengthy periods of observation. Responses to treatment must be closely monitored, interpreted and evaluated with caution because of the potential variations in steroidogenesis. An original case report of a cyclic Cushing's syndrome is presented in this review.
10.1007/s11102-005-4025-5
Genetics of Cushing's syndrome.
Yaneva Maria,Vandeva Silvia,Zacharieva Sabina,Daly Adrian F,Beckers Albert
Neuroendocrinology
Cushing's syndrome (CS) is characterized by pathologically elevated free glucocorticoid levels. Endogenous hypercortisolism is usually due to ACTH-secreting pituitary corticotropic adenomas and less often due to ectopic ACTH-secreting neuroendocrine neoplasms or ACTH-independent adrenal cortisol hypersecretion. CS is a serious chronic disease leading to a several-fold increase in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Multiple genetic alterations have been described in the setting of sporadic corticotropinoma formation. Changes in the expression profiles have been demonstrated in growth factors and their receptors, cell-cycle regulators and in various genes related to hormonal gene transcription, synthesis and secretion. Sporadic adrenal adenomas and carcinomas may demonstrate dysfunction in genes such as TP53 among others. Cushing's disease can be an inherited condition also. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) and familial isolated pituitary adenomas (FIPA) together account for 5% of pituitary adenomas. Cushing's disease occurs infrequently in an inherited setting in both of these conditions. To date only 2 cases of Cushing's disease have been described in association with mutations in AIP. One case of Cushing's disease has been reported as part of MEN4, a rare MEN1-like syndrome due to mutation in the CDKN1B gene. Carney complex (CNC) due to PRKAR1A mutations in most cases is associated with CS, mainly as a cause of bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. The cAMP signaling pathway is affected in this setting. In recent times the involvement of genes such as PDE11A, PDE8B and others have expanded the spectrum of the genetic pathophysiology of CS.
10.1159/000314215
Prognosis of patients treated for Cushing syndrome.
Aulinas Anna,Valassi Elena,Webb Susan M
Endocrinologia y nutricion : organo de la Sociedad Espanola de Endocrinologia y Nutricion
Cushing syndrome (CS), due to an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma, adrenal tumors, or ectopic ACTH secretion, causes hypercortisolism. CS is associated with major morbidity, especially metabolic and cardiovascular complications, osteoporosis, psychiatric changes, and cognitive impairment. Despite biochemical "cure" of hypercortisolism and clinical improvement after effective treatment, these complications are only partially reversible. Exacerbation of prior autoimmune diseases is also seen. All of these lead to quality of life impairment and increased mortality. This review addresses the main comorbidities and long-term consequences of CS despite clinical and biochemical "cure".
10.1016/j.endonu.2013.03.008
Risk of cardiovascular events in people prescribed glucocorticoids with iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome: cohort study.
BMJ (Clinical research ed.)
OBJECTIVE:To investigate whether there is an increased risk of cardiovascular events in people who exhibit iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome during treatment with glucocorticoids. DESIGN:Cohort study. SETTING:424 UK general practices contributing to The Health Improvement Network database. PARTICIPANTS:People prescribed systemic glucocorticoids and with a diagnosis of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome (n = 547) and two comparison groups: those prescribed glucocorticoids and with no diagnosis of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome (n = 3231) and those not prescribed systemic glucocorticoids (n = 3282). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:Incidence of cardiovascular events within a year after diagnosis of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome or after a randomly selected date, and association between iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome and risk of cardiovascular events. RESULTS:417 cardiovascular events occurred in 341 patients. Taking into account only the first event by patient (coronary heart disease n = 177, heart failure n = 101, ischaemic stroke n = 63), the incidence rates of cardiovascular events per 100 person years at risk were 15.1 (95% confidence interval 11.8 to 18.4) in those prescribed glucocorticoids and with a diagnosis of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome, 6.4 (5.5 to 7.3) in those prescribed glucocorticoids without a diagnosis of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome, and 4.1 (3.4 to 4.8) in those not prescribed glucocorticoids. In multivariate analyses adjusted for sex, age, intensity of glucocorticoid use, underlying disease, smoking status, and use of aspirin, diabetes drugs, antihypertensive drugs, lipid lowering drugs, or oral anticoagulant drugs, the relation between iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome and cardiovascular events was strong (adjusted hazard ratios 2.27 (95% confidence interval 1.48 to 3.47) for coronary heart disease, 3.77 (2.41 to 5.90) for heart failure, and 2.23 (0.96 to 5.17) for ischaemic cerebrovascular events). The adjusted hazard ratio for any cardiovascular event was 4.16 (2.98 to 5.82) when the group prescribed glucocorticoids and with iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome was compared with the group not prescribed glucocorticoids. CONCLUSION:People who use glucocorticoids and exhibit iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome should be aggressively targeted for early screening and management of cardiovascular risk factors.
10.1136/bmj.e4928
Constitutive activation of PKA catalytic subunit in adrenal Cushing's syndrome.
Beuschlein Felix,Fassnacht Martin,Assié Guillaume,Calebiro Davide,Stratakis Constantine A,Osswald Andrea,Ronchi Cristina L,Wieland Thomas,Sbiera Silviu,Faucz Fabio R,Schaak Katrin,Schmittfull Anett,Schwarzmayr Thomas,Barreau Olivia,Vezzosi Delphine,Rizk-Rabin Marthe,Zabel Ulrike,Szarek Eva,Salpea Paraskevi,Forlino Antonella,Vetro Annalisa,Zuffardi Orsetta,Kisker Caroline,Diener Susanne,Meitinger Thomas,Lohse Martin J,Reincke Martin,Bertherat Jérome,Strom Tim M,Allolio Bruno
The New England journal of medicine
BACKGROUND:Corticotropin-independent Cushing's syndrome is caused by tumors or hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex. The molecular pathogenesis of cortisol-producing adrenal adenomas is not well understood. METHODS:We performed exome sequencing of tumor-tissue specimens from 10 patients with cortisol-producing adrenal adenomas and evaluated recurrent mutations in candidate genes in an additional 171 patients with adrenocortical tumors. We also performed genomewide copy-number analysis in 35 patients with cortisol-secreting bilateral adrenal hyperplasias. We studied the effects of these genetic defects both clinically and in vitro. RESULTS:Exome sequencing revealed somatic mutations in PRKACA, which encodes the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A [PKA]), in 8 of 10 adenomas (c.617A→C in 7 and c.595_596insCAC in 1). Overall, PRKACA somatic mutations were identified in 22 of 59 unilateral adenomas (37%) from patients with overt Cushing's syndrome; these mutations were not detectable in 40 patients with subclinical hypercortisolism or in 82 patients with other adrenal tumors. Among 35 patients with cortisol-producing hyperplasias, 5 (including 2 first-degree relatives) carried a germline copy-number gain (duplication) of the genomic region on chromosome 19 that includes PRKACA. In vitro studies showed impaired inhibition of both PKA catalytic subunit mutants by the PKA regulatory subunit, whereas cells from patients with germline chromosomal gains showed increased protein levels of the PKA catalytic subunit; in both instances, basal PKA activity was increased. CONCLUSIONS:Genetic alterations of the catalytic subunit of PKA were found to be associated with human disease. Germline duplications of this gene resulted in bilateral adrenal hyperplasias, whereas somatic PRKACA mutations resulted in unilateral cortisol-producing adrenal adenomas. (Funded by the European Commission Seventh Framework Program and others.).
10.1056/NEJMoa1310359
Recurrent somatic mutations underlie corticotropin-independent Cushing's syndrome.
Sato Yusuke,Maekawa Shigekatsu,Ishii Ryohei,Sanada Masashi,Morikawa Teppei,Shiraishi Yuichi,Yoshida Kenichi,Nagata Yasunobu,Sato-Otsubo Aiko,Yoshizato Tetsuichi,Suzuki Hiromichi,Shiozawa Yusuke,Kataoka Keisuke,Kon Ayana,Aoki Kosuke,Chiba Kenichi,Tanaka Hiroko,Kume Haruki,Miyano Satoru,Fukayama Masashi,Nureki Osamu,Homma Yukio,Ogawa Seishi
Science (New York, N.Y.)
Cushing's syndrome is caused by excess cortisol production from the adrenocortical gland. In corticotropin-independent Cushing's syndrome, the excess cortisol production is primarily attributed to an adrenocortical adenoma, in which the underlying molecular pathogenesis has been poorly understood. We report a hotspot mutation (L206R) in PRKACA, which encodes the catalytic subunit of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA), in more than 50% of cases with adrenocortical adenomas associated with corticotropin-independent Cushing's syndrome. The L206R PRKACA mutant abolished its binding to the regulatory subunit of PKA (PRKAR1A) that inhibits catalytic activity of PRKACA, leading to constitutive, cAMP-independent PKA activation. These results highlight the major role of cAMP-independent activation of cAMP/PKA signaling by somatic mutations in corticotropin-independent Cushing's syndrome, providing insights into the diagnosis and therapeutics of this syndrome.
10.1126/science.1252328
Prognostic role of overt hypercortisolism in completely operated patients with adrenocortical cancer.
Berruti Alfredo,Fassnacht Martin,Haak Harm,Else Tobias,Baudin Eric,Sperone Paola,Kroiss Matthias,Kerkhofs Thomas,Williams Andrew R,Ardito Arianna,Leboulleux Sophie,Volante Marco,Deutschbein Timo,Feelders Richards,Ronchi Cristina,Grisanti Salvatore,Gelderblom Hans,Porpiglia Francesco,Papotti Mauro,Hammer Gary D,Allolio Bruno,Terzolo Massimo
European urology
BACKGROUND:Although prognostic parameters are important to guide adjuvant treatment, very few have been identified in patients with completely resected adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). OBJECTIVE:To assess the prognostic role of clinical symptoms of hypercortisolism in a large series of patients with completely resected ACC. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS:A total of 524 patients followed at referral centers for ACC in Europe and the United States entered the study. Inclusion criteria were ≥18 yr of age, a histologic diagnosis of ACC, and complete surgery (R0). Exclusion criteria were a history of other malignancies and adjuvant systemic therapies other than mitotane. INTERVENTION:All ACC patients were completely resected, and adjuvant mitotane therapy was prescribed at the discretion of the investigators. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:The primary end point was overall survival (OS). The secondary end points were recurrence-free survival (RFS) and the efficacy of adjuvant mitotane therapy according to cortisol secretion. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS:Overt hypercortisolism was observed in 197 patients (37.6%). Patients with cortisol excess were younger (p=0.002); no difference according to sex and tumor stage was observed. The median follow-up of the series was 50 mo. After adjustment for sex, age, tumor stage, and mitotane treatment, the prognostic significance of cortisol excess was highly significant for both RFS (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.30; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04-2.62; p=0.02) and OS (HR: 1.55; 95% CI, 1.15-2.09; p=0.004). Mitotane administration was associated with a reduction of disease progression (adjusted HR: 0.65; 95% CI, 0.49-0.86; p=0.003) that did not differ according to the patient's secretory status. A major limitation is that only symptomatic patients were considered as having hypercortisolism, thus excluding information on the prognostic role of elevated cortisol levels in the absence of a clinical syndrome. CONCLUSIONS:Clinically relevant hypercortisolism is a new prognostic factor in patients with completely resected ACC. The efficacy of adjuvant mitotane does not seem to be influenced by overt hypercortisolism.
10.1016/j.eururo.2013.11.006
ARMC5 mutations in macronodular adrenal hyperplasia with Cushing's syndrome.
Assié Guillaume,Libé Rossella,Espiard Stéphanie,Rizk-Rabin Marthe,Guimier Anne,Luscap Windy,Barreau Olivia,Lefèvre Lucile,Sibony Mathilde,Guignat Laurence,Rodriguez Stéphanie,Perlemoine Karine,René-Corail Fernande,Letourneur Franck,Trabulsi Bilal,Poussier Alix,Chabbert-Buffet Nathalie,Borson-Chazot Françoise,Groussin Lionel,Bertagna Xavier,Stratakis Constantine A,Ragazzon Bruno,Bertherat Jérôme
The New England journal of medicine
BACKGROUND:Corticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia may be an incidental finding or it may be identified during evaluation for Cushing's syndrome. Reports of familial cases and the involvement of both adrenal glands suggest a genetic origin of this condition. METHODS:We genotyped blood and tumor DNA obtained from 33 patients with corticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (12 men and 21 women who were 30 to 73 years of age), using single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays, microsatellite markers, and whole-genome and Sanger sequencing. The effects of armadillo repeat containing 5 (ARMC5) inactivation and overexpression were tested in cell-culture models. RESULTS:The most frequent somatic chromosome alteration was loss of heterozygosity at 16p (in 8 of 33 patients for whom data were available [24%]). The most frequent mutation identified by means of whole-genome sequencing was in ARMC5, located at 16p11.2. ARMC5 mutations were detected in tumors obtained from 18 of 33 patients (55%). In all cases, both alleles of ARMC5 carried mutations: one germline and the other somatic. In 4 patients with a germline ARMC5 mutation, different nodules from the affected adrenals harbored different secondary ARMC5 alterations. Transcriptome-based classification of corticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia indicated that ARMC5 mutations influenced gene expression, since all cases with mutations clustered together. ARMC5 inactivation decreased steroidogenesis in vitro, and its overexpression altered cell survival. CONCLUSIONS:Some cases of corticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia appear to be genetic, most often with inactivating mutations of ARMC5, a putative tumor-suppressor gene. Genetic testing for this condition, which often has a long and insidious prediagnostic course, might result in earlier identification and better management. (Funded by Agence Nationale de la Recherche and others.).
10.1056/NEJMoa1304603
High Prevalence of Diabetes in Patients With Primary Aldosteronism (PA) Associated With Subclinical Hypercortisolism and Prediabetes More Prevalent in Bilateral Than Unilateral PA: A Large, Multicenter Cohort Study in Japan.
Akehi Yuko,Yanase Toshihiko,Motonaga Ryoko,Umakoshi Hironobu,Tsuiki Mika,Takeda Yoshiyu,Yoneda Takashi,Kurihara Isao,Itoh Hiroshi,Katabami Takuyuki,Ichijo Takamasa,Wada Norio,Shibayama Yui,Yoshimoto Takanobu,Ashida Kenji,Ogawa Yoshihiro,Kawashima Junji,Sone Masakatsu,Inagaki Nobuya,Takahashi Katsutoshi,Fujita Megumi,Watanabe Minemori,Matsuda Yuichi,Kobayashi Hiroki,Shibata Hirotaka,Kamemura Kohei,Otsuki Michio,Fujii Yuichi,Yamamoto Koichi,Ogo Atsushi,Okamura Shintaro,Miyauchi Shozo,Fukuoka Tomikazu,Izawa Shoichiro,Hashimoto Shigeatsu,Yamada Masanobu,Yoshikawa Yuichiro,Kai Tatsuya,Suzuki Tomoko,Kawamura Takashi,Naruse Mitsuhide,
Diabetes care
OBJECTIVE:To investigate the prevalence and causes of diabetes in patients with primary aldosteronism (PA) in a multi-institutional cohort study in Japan. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS:The prevalence of diabetes was determined in 2,210 patients with PA (diagnosed or glycated hemoglobin [HbA] ≥6.5% [≥48 mmol/mol]; NGSP) and compared with that of the Japanese general population according to age and sex. In 1,386 patients with PA and clear laterality (unilateral or bilateral), the effects of plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC), hypokalemia (<3.5 mEq/L), suspected subclinical hypercortisolism (SH; serum cortisol ≥1.8 µg/dL after 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test), and PA laterality on the prevalence of diabetes or prediabetes (5.7% ≤ HbA <6.5% [39 mmol/mol ≤ HbA <48 mmol/mol]) were examined. RESULTS:Of the 2,210 patients with PA, 477 (21.6%) had diabetes. This prevalence is higher than that in the general population (12.1%) or in 10-year cohorts aged 30-69 years. Logistic regression or χ test revealed a significant contribution of suspected SH to diabetes. Despite more active PA profiles (e.g., higher PAC and lower potassium concentrations) in unilateral than bilateral PA, BMI and HbA values were significantly higher in bilateral PA. PA laterality had no effect on the prevalence of diabetes; however, the prevalence of prediabetes was significantly higher in bilateral than unilateral PA. CONCLUSIONS:Individuals with PA have a high prevalence of diabetes, which is associated mainly with SH. The prevalence of prediabetes is greater for bilateral than unilateral PA, suggesting a unique metabolic cause of bilateral PA.
10.2337/dc18-1293
Cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with adrenal incidentalomas that are either non-secreting or associated with intermediate phenotype or subclinical Cushing's syndrome: a 15-year retrospective study.
Di Dalmazi Guido,Vicennati Valentina,Garelli Silvia,Casadio Elena,Rinaldi Eleonora,Giampalma Emanuela,Mosconi Cristina,Golfieri Rita,Paccapelo Alexandro,Pagotto Uberto,Pasquali Renato
The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology
BACKGROUND:Incidental discovery of adrenal masses has increased over the past few years. Mild alterations in cortisol secretion without clinical signs of overt hypercortisolism (subclinical Cushing's syndrome) are a common finding in patients with these tumours. Although metabolic alterations and increased cardiovascular risk have been noted in patients with subclinical Cushing's syndrome, incidence of cardiovascular events and mortality in the long term have not been assessed. We aimed to ascertain the frequency of new cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with non-secreting adrenal incidentalomas, tumours of intermediate phenotype, or those causing subclinical Cushing's syndrome. METHODS:From January, 1995, to September, 2010, consecutive outpatients with adrenal incidentalomas who were referred to the endocrinology unit of S Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy, were enrolled into our study. Individuals were assessed every 18-30 months for the first 5 years (mean follow-up 7·5 [SD 3·2] years, range 26 months to 15 years). Cortisol concentrations after the 1 mg dexamethasone suppression test (DST) were used to define non-secreting (+50 nmol/L) and intermediate phenotype (50-138 nmol/L) adrenal incidentalomas and subclinical Cushing's syndrome (+138 nmol/L). At the end of follow-up, patients were reclassified as having either unchanged or worsened secreting patterns from baseline. FINDINGS:198 outpatients were assessed; at the end of follow-up, 114 patients had stable non-secreting adrenal incidentalomas, 61 had either a stable intermediate phenotype or subclinical Cushing's syndrome, and 23 had a pattern of secretion that had worsened. By comparison with patients with stable non-secreting adrenal incidentalomas, the incidence of cardiovascular events was higher in individuals with a stable intermediate phenotype or subclinical Cushing's syndrome (6·7% vs 16·7%; p=0·04) and in those with worsened secreting patterns (6·7% vs 28·4%; p=0·02). Cardiovascular events were associated independently with a change (from baseline to the end of follow-up) in cortisol concentrations post DST (hazard ratio 1·13, 95% CI 1·05-1·21; p=0·001). Survival rates for all-cause mortality were lower in patients with either stable intermediate phenotype adrenal incidentalomas or subclinical Cushing's syndrome compared with those with stable non-secreting masses (57·0% vs 91·2%; p=0·005). Factors associated with mortality were age (hazard ratio 1·06, 95% CI 1·01-1·12; p=0·03) and mean concentrations of cortisol post DST (1·10, 1·01-1·19; p=0·04). Compared with patients with stable non-secreting adrenal incidentalomas, unadjusted survival for cardiovascular-specific mortality was lower in patients with either a stable intermediate phenotype or subclinical Cushing's syndrome (97·5% vs 78·4%; p=0·02) and in those with worsened secreting patterns (97·5% vs 60·0%; p=0·01). Cancer mortality did not differ between groups. INTERPRETATION:Even when clinical signs of overt hypercortisolism are not present, patients with adrenal incidentalomas and mild hypercortisolism have an increased risk of cardiovascular events and mortality. FUNDING:None.
10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70211-0
Cushing's syndrome.
Lacroix André,Feelders Richard A,Stratakis Constantine A,Nieman Lynnette K
Lancet (London, England)
Chronic exposure to excess glucorticoids results in diverse manifestations of Cushing's syndrome, including debilitating morbidities and increased mortality. Genetic and molecular mechanisms responsible for excess cortisol secretion by primary adrenal lesions and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion from corticotroph or ectopic tumours have been identified. New biochemical and imaging diagnostic approaches and progress in surgical and radiotherapy techniques have improved the management of patients. The therapeutic goal is to normalise tissue exposure to cortisol to reverse increased morbidity and mortality. Optimum treatment consisting of selective and complete resection of the causative tumour is necessay to allow eventual normalisation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, maintenance of pituitary function, and avoidance of tumour recurrence. The development of new drugs offers clinicians several choices to treat patients with residual cortisol excess. However, for patients affected by this challenging syndrome, the long-term effects and comorbidities associated with hypercortisolism need ongoing care.
10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61375-1
Cushing's syndrome driver mutation disrupts protein kinase A allosteric network, altering both regulation and substrate specificity.
Science advances
Genetic alterations in the gene coding for the catalytic α subunit of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA-C) are linked to cortisol-secreting adrenocortical adenomas, resulting in Cushing's syndrome. Among those, a single mutation (L205R) has been found in up to 67% of patients. Because the x-ray structures of the wild-type and mutant kinases are essentially identical, the mechanism explaining aberrant function of this mutant remains under active debate. Using NMR spectroscopy, thermodynamics, kinetic assays, and molecular dynamics simulations, we found that this single mutation causes global changes in the enzyme, disrupting the intramolecular allosteric network and eliciting losses in nucleotide/pseudo-substrate binding cooperativity. Remarkably, by rewiring its internal allosteric network, PKA-C is able to bind and phosphorylate non-canonical substrates, explaining its changes in substrate specificity. Both the lack of regulation and change in substrate specificity reveal the complex role of this mutated kinase in the formation of cortisol-secreting adrenocortical adenomas.
10.1126/sciadv.aaw9298
Glucocorticoids and Bone: Consequences of Endogenous and Exogenous Excess and Replacement Therapy.
Endocrine reviews
Osteoporosis associated with long-term glucocorticoid therapy remains a common and serious bone disease. Additionally, in recent years it has become clear that more subtle states of endogenous glucocorticoid excess may have a major impact on bone health. Adverse effects can be seen with mild systemic glucocorticoid excess, but there is also evidence of tissue-specific regulation of glucocorticoid action within bone as a mechanism of disease. This review article examines (1) the role of endogenous glucocorticoids in normal bone physiology, (2) the skeletal effects of endogenous glucocorticoid excess in the context of endocrine conditions such as Cushing disease/syndrome and autonomous cortisol secretion (subclinical Cushing syndrome), and (3) the actions of therapeutic (exogenous) glucocorticoids on bone. We review the extent to which the effect of glucocorticoids on bone is influenced by variations in tissue metabolizing enzymes and glucocorticoid receptor expression and sensitivity. We consider how the effects of therapeutic glucocorticoids on bone are complicated by the effects of the underlying inflammatory disease being treated. We also examine the impact that glucocorticoid replacement regimens have on bone in the context of primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency. We conclude that even subtle excess of endogenous or moderate doses of therapeutic glucocorticoids are detrimental to bone. However, in patients with inflammatory disorders there is a complex interplay between glucocorticoid treatment and underlying inflammation, with the underlying condition frequently representing the major component underpinning bone damage.
10.1210/er.2018-00097
Genetic Causes of Functional Adrenocortical Adenomas.
Zennaro Maria-Christina,Boulkroun Sheerazed,Fernandes-Rosa Fabio
Endocrine reviews
Aldosterone and cortisol, the main mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid hormones in humans, are produced in the adrenal cortex, which is composed of three concentric zones with specific functional characteristics. Adrenocortical adenomas (ACAs) can lead to the autonomous secretion of aldosterone responsible for primary aldosteronism, the most frequent form of secondary arterial hypertension. In the case of cortisol production, ACAs lead to overt or subclinical Cushing syndrome. Genetic analysis driven by next-generation sequencing technology has enabled the discovery, during the past 7 years, of the genetic causes of a large subset of ACAs. In particular, somatic mutations in genes regulating intracellular ionic homeostasis and membrane potential have been identified in aldosterone-producing adenomas. These mutations all promote increased intracellular calcium concentrations, with activation of calcium signaling, the main trigger for aldosterone production. In cortisol-producing adenomas, recurrent somatic mutations in PRKACA (coding for the cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit α) affect cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase A signaling, leading to activation of cortisol biosynthesis. In addition to these specific pathways, the Wnt/β-catenin pathway appears to play an important role in adrenal tumorigenesis, because β-catenin mutations have been identified in both aldosterone- and cortisol-producing adenomas. This, together with different intermediate states of aldosterone and cortisol cosecretion, raises the possibility that the two conditions share a certain degree of genetic susceptibility. Alternatively, different hits might be responsible for the diseases, with one hit leading to adrenocortical cell proliferation and nodule formation and the second specifying the hormonal secretory pattern.
10.1210/er.2017-00189
Prognostic impact of paraneoplastic cushing's syndrome in small-cell lung cancer.
Nagy-Mignotte Hélène,Shestaeva Oxana,Vignoud Lucile,Guillem Pascale,Ruckly Stéphane,Chabre Olivier,Sakhri Linda,Duruisseaux Michael,Mousseau Mireille,Timsit Jean-François,Moro-Sibilot Denis,
Journal of thoracic oncology : official publication of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer
INTRODUCTION:Paraneoplastic Cushing's syndrome (CushingPS) in small-cell lung cancer is rare but severe. METHODS:We studied 383 patients with small-cell lung cancer diagnosed between 1998 and 2012. Among them, 23 patients had CushingPS, 56 had other paraneoplastic syndrome (OtherPS), and 304 had no paraneoplastic syndrome (NoPS). RESULTS:After comparison of the three groups, we observed that CushingPS patients had more extensive disease: 82.6% versus 67.8% versus 53.3% (p = 0.005), respectively, with more than two metastatic sites: 63.2% versus 15.8% and 24.1% (p ≤ 0.001), a higher World Health Organization performance status (2-4): 73.9% versus 57.1% versus 43.7% (p = 0.006), greater weight loss (≥10%): 47.8% versus 33.9% versus 16.4% (p ≤ 0.001), reduced objective response to first-line treatment: 47.6% versus 74.1% versus 71.1% (p = 0.04), and poorer sensitivity to first-line treatment: 19% versus 38.9% versus 48.6% (p = 0.01). NoPS patients, with World Health Organization performance status of 3-4, had extensive disease at diagnosis, with response, sensitivity to first-line treatment, and survival similar to the CushingPS group. At relapse, the CushingPS group had no objective response to second-line treatment versus 25% versus 42.8% in OtherPS and NoPS groups, respectively (p = 0.005). The median survival of CushingPS patients was 6.6 months versus 9.2 months for OtherPS and 13.1 months for NoPS patients (p ≤ 0.001). CushingPS is a prognostic factor of death (hazard ratio, 2.31; p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSION:CushingPS is the worst form of the paraneoplastic syndromes with particularly extensive tumors. Reduced objective response and sensitivity to first-line treatment and no response to second-line treatment suggest starting palliative care early at first line and exclusively at relapse.
10.1097/JTO.0000000000000116
Retinoic acid prevents experimental Cushing syndrome.
Páez-Pereda M,Kovalovsky D,Hopfner U,Theodoropoulou M,Pagotto U,Uhl E,Losa M,Stalla J,Grübler Y,Missale C,Arzt E,Stalla G K
The Journal of clinical investigation
Cushing syndrome is caused by an excess of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production by neuroendocrine tumors, which subsequently results in chronic glucocorticoid excess. We found that retinoic acid inhibits the transcriptional activity of AP-1 and the orphan receptors Nur77 and Nurr1 in ACTH-secreting tumor cells. Retinoic acid treatment resulted in reduced pro-opiomelanocortin transcription and ACTH production. ACTH inhibition was also observed in human pituitary ACTH-secreting tumor cells and a small-cell lung cancer cell line, but not in normal cells. This correlated with the expression of the orphan receptor COUP-TFI, which was found in normal corticotrophs but not in pituitary Cushing tumors. COUP-TFI expression in ACTH-secreting tumor cells blocked retinoic acid action. Retinoic acid also inhibited cell proliferation and, after prolonged treatment, increased caspase-3 activity and induced cell death in ACTH-secreting cells. In adrenal cortex cells, retinoic acid inhibited corticosterone production and cell proliferation. The antiproliferative action and the inhibition of ACTH and corticosterone produced by retinoic acid were confirmed in vivo in experimental ACTH-secreting tumors in nude mice. Thus, we conclude that the effects of retinoic acid combine in vivo to reverse the endocrine alterations and symptoms observed in experimental Cushing syndrome.
10.1172/JCI11098
Complications of Cushing's syndrome: state of the art.
Pivonello Rosario,Isidori Andrea M,De Martino Maria Cristina,Newell-Price John,Biller Beverly M K,Colao Annamaria
The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology
Cushing's syndrome is a serious endocrine disease caused by chronic, autonomous, and excessive secretion of cortisol. The syndrome is associated with increased mortality and impaired quality of life because of the occurrence of comorbidities. These clinical complications include metabolic syndrome, consisting of systemic arterial hypertension, visceral obesity, impairment of glucose metabolism, and dyslipidaemia; musculoskeletal disorders, such as myopathy, osteoporosis, and skeletal fractures; neuropsychiatric disorders, such as impairment of cognitive function, depression, or mania; impairment of reproductive and sexual function; and dermatological manifestations, mainly represented by acne, hirsutism, and alopecia. Hypertension in patients with Cushing's syndrome has a multifactorial pathogenesis and contributes to the increased risk for myocardial infarction, cardiac failure, or stroke, which are the most common causes of death; risks of these outcomes are exacerbated by a prothrombotic diathesis and hypokalaemia. Neuropsychiatric disorders can be responsible for suicide. Immune disorders are common; immunosuppression during active disease causes susceptibility to infections, possibly complicated by sepsis, an important cause of death, whereas immune rebound after disease remission can exacerbate underlying autoimmune diseases. Prompt treatment of cortisol excess and specific treatments of comorbidities are crucial to prevent serious clinical complications and reduce the mortality associated with Cushing's syndrome.
10.1016/S2213-8587(16)00086-3
Efficacy and safety of levoketoconazole in the treatment of endogenous Cushing's syndrome (SONICS): a phase 3, multicentre, open-label, single-arm trial.
Fleseriu Maria,Pivonello Rosario,Elenkova Atanaska,Salvatori Roberto,Auchus Richard J,Feelders Richard A,Geer Eliza B,Greenman Yona,Witek Przemyslaw,Cohen Fredric,Biller Beverly M K
The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology
BACKGROUND:Levoketoconazole is a ketoconazole stereoisomer in development for treatment of Cushing's syndrome and has not been assessed previously in a clinical trial in patients with Cushing's syndrome. We aimed to investigate the efficacy and safety of levoketoconazole in patients with endogenous Cushing's syndrome. METHODS:SONICS is a phase 3, multicentre, open-label, non-randomised, single-arm study in which we recruited adults (≥18 years) with confirmed Cushing's syndrome and a mean 24-h urinary free cortisol (mUFC) of at least 1·5 times the upper limit of normal from 60 hospital and community sites in 19 countries (15 countries in Europe, and Canada, Israel, Turkey, and the USA). Patients were treated with oral levoketoconazole in a 2-21 week incremental dose-titration phase starting at 150 mg twice daily (150 mg increments until mUFC normalisation, maximum 600 mg twice daily) and a 6-month maintenance phase. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with mUFC normalisation at end of maintenance, without dose increase during the maintenance phase (in the intention-to-treat population). Prespecified adverse events of special interest were potential liver toxicity, corrected QT prolongation, and adrenal insufficiency. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01838551. FINDINGS:Between July 30, 2014, and June 30, 2017, 201 individuals were screened and 94 patients were enrolled and received at least one dose of study medication. Of the 94 patients, 80 (85%) had pituitary Cushing's syndrome. Mean mUFC at baseline was 671·4 nmol/24 h (243·3 μg/24 h), which is 4·9 times the upper limit of normal. Of the 77 patients who advanced to the maintenance phase, 62 (81%) had mUFC normalisation by end-of-dose titration. At the end of the 6-month maintenance phase, 29 (31%) of 94 patients were responders; the least-squares mean estimate of the proportion of responders was 0·30 (95% CI 0·21-0·40; p=0·0154 vs null hypothesis of ≤0·20). The most common adverse events in the 94 patients were nausea (30 [32%]) and headache (26 [28%]). Adverse events led to study discontinuation in 12 (13%) of 94 patients. Two patients had a QT interval (Fridericia corrected) of more than 500 ms, and three patients had suspected adrenal insufficiency. Alanine aminotransferase reversibly increased to more than three times the upper limit of normal in ten (11%) patients. Four patients had serious adverse events that were considered probably or definitely related to the study drug: abnormal liver function test results (n=1), prolonged QT interval (n=2), and adrenal insufficiency (n=1). One person died from colon carcinoma unrelated to study medication. INTERPRETATION:Twice-daily oral levoketoconazole treatment led to sustained improvements in urinary free cortisol, with an acceptable safety and tolerability profile. Levoketoconazole might represent a useful therapeutic option for the medical treatment of Cushing's syndrome. FUNDING:Strongbridge Biopharma.
10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30313-4
Difficulties in diagnosis and management of ectopic Cushing syndrome.
Cho Sukki,Ra Yong Joon,Lee Choon-Taek,Chung Jin-Haeng,Sung Sook-Whan,Jheon Sanghoon
Journal of thoracic oncology : official publication of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer
A 18-year-old man presented to a local hospital with muscle weakness, facial edema, and a 6 kg weight gain over 2 months. After a complete work-up, he was diagnosed with pituitary Cushing syndrome and treated with a bilateral adrenalectomy for Cushing syndrome and pituitary radiotherapy for Nelson syndrome. Twenty-five years later, his ectopic source of adrenocorticotropic hormone was revealed as a pulmonary neuroendocrine tumor, and a pulmonary resection was performed. Subsequently, a biochemical and clinical remission including hyperpigmentation was achieved.
10.1097/JTO.0b013e318169e316
Pros and cons of screening for occult Cushing syndrome.
Tabarin Antoine,Perez Paul
Nature reviews. Endocrinology
Systematic screening studies performed mainly in patients with diabetes mellitus have revealed an unexpectedly high prevalence of occult Cushing syndrome. Such studies may provide a rationale for systematically screening obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, a screening strategy is only justified if it is supported by enough evidence of its efficacy and if the benefits will outweigh drawbacks. To date, the natural history of occult Cushing syndrome and its possible effect on long-term morbidity are unknown. The clinical spectrum of occult Cushing syndrome and its relatively low prevalence may potentially negatively affect the performance of endocrine tests used to diagnose overt Cushing syndrome and generate false positives. Whether the cure of occult Cushing syndrome favorably influences clinical outcomes and is more beneficial than treatment of diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk factors with currently available pharmacological tools remains to be demonstrated. Last, the acceptability of a screening program by professionals and the health-care system in terms of workload and costs is highly questionable. Thus, an assessment of the indications for and against screening for occult Cushing syndrome on the basis of currently available data suggests that, to date, the cons surpass the pros.
10.1038/nrendo.2011.51
A genetic and molecular update on adrenocortical causes of Cushing syndrome.
Lodish Maya,Stratakis Constantine A
Nature reviews. Endocrinology
Primary adrenal Cushing syndrome is the result of cortisol hypersecretion mainly by adenomas and, rarely, by bilateral micronodular or macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) signalling is the major activator of cortisol secretion in the adrenal cortex. Many adenomas and hyperplasias associated with primary hypercortisolism carry somatic or germline mutations in genes that encode constituents of the cAMP-PKA pathway. In this Review, we discuss Cushing syndrome and its linkage to dysregulated cAMP-PKA signalling, with a focus on genetic findings in the past few years. In addition, we discuss the presence of germline inactivating mutations in ARMC5 in patients with primary bilateral macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. This finding has implications for genetic counselling of affected patients; hitherto, most patients with this form of adrenal hyperplasia and Cushing syndrome were thought to have a sporadic and not a familial disorder.
10.1038/nrendo.2016.24
Glucose Metabolism Abnormalities in Cushing Syndrome: From Molecular Basis to Clinical Management.
Scaroni Carla,Zilio Marialuisa,Foti Michelangelo,Boscaro Marco
Endocrine reviews
An impaired glucose metabolism, which often leads to the onset of diabetes mellitus (DM), is a common complication of chronic exposure to exogenous and endogenous glucocorticoid (GC) excess and plays an important part in contributing to morbidity and mortality in patients with Cushing syndrome (CS). This article reviews the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of changes in glucose metabolism associated with hypercortisolism, addressing both the pathophysiological aspects and the clinical and therapeutic implications. Chronic hypercortisolism may have pleiotropic effects on all major peripheral tissues governing glucose homeostasis. Adding further complexity, both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms are directly induced by GCs in a context-specific and cell-/organ-dependent manner. In this paper, the discussion focuses on established and potential pathologic molecular mechanisms that are induced by chronically excessive circulating levels of GCs and affect glucose homeostasis in various tissues. The management of patients with CS and DM includes treating their hyperglycemia and correcting their GC excess. The effects on glycemic control of various medical therapies for CS are reviewed in this paper. The association between DM and subclinical CS and the role of screening for CS in diabetic patients are also discussed.
10.1210/er.2016-1105